Stoicism β a life governed by reason over emotion
Founded by Zeno of Citium in ancient Greece, Stoicism emphasizes living according to reason rather than being swayed by emotion, and it carried on into the Roman era through figures like Seneca, Epictetus, and the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Stoic philosophy holds that distinguishing between what we can control (our own judgments and attitudes) and what we cannot (external events), and not letting ourselves be overly concerned with what we cannot control, is the path to inner peace (apatheia). Thanks to this practical attitude, it remains a frequently cited philosophy today in discussions of self-improvement and resilience.
Epicureanism β a restrained hedonism that's easily misunderstood
The pleasure that Epicureanism speaks of is not sensory indulgence but a tranquility of mind free of pain and anxiety (ataraxia), which it sought to achieve through a modest, restrained life. The word "hedonism" often brings to mind a life of indulgence, but Epicurus himself actually regarded a simple diet, friendship, and a peaceful mind as the greatest pleasures. He believed that pursuing excessive desires instead breeds anxiety and pain, and proposed a restrained life, in which needs are met only as much as necessary, as the ideal state.
Rationalism β knowledge that begins from reason
Represented by RenΓ© Descartes, rationalism is a strand of modern philosophy that regards rational thought and logical reasoning, rather than sensory experience, as the source of certain knowledge. After a process of methodical doubt in which he questioned everything, Descartes arrived at the conclusion that the one proposition that could not be doubted was "I think, therefore I am." This attitude of seeking the foundation of certain knowledge in rational reasoning rather than the senses is the core of rationalism, and philosophers such as Spinoza and Leibniz also belong to this tradition.
Empiricism β sensory experience as the starting point of knowledge
Represented by John Locke and David Hume, empiricism is the view that all knowledge is not innate from birth but is instead formed after birth through sensory experience. Locke compared the human mind to a blank slate (tabula rasa) on which nothing has yet been written, arguing that everything we know is ultimately filled in through experience. This stands in contrast to rationalism, which held that rational reasoning alone could lead to true knowledge, and modern philosophy developed significantly through the debate between these two currents.
Utilitarianism β the greatest happiness for the greatest number
Systematized by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, utilitarianism judges right and wrong based on the outcome an action produces β specifically, the total amount of happiness and suffering it brings about. Utilitarianism focuses less on the nature of the act itself and more on the outcome it produces for society as a whole. Its core principle is that the choice bringing about the greater happiness for the greater number of people is the morally right one, and traces of this way of thinking can still often be found today in policy-making and cost-benefit analysis.
Existentialism β a life whose meaning you create yourself
Beginning with Kierkegaard and carried forward by Sartre and Camus, existentialism holds, through the proposition that "existence precedes essence," that human beings, born without a predetermined purpose, must create the meaning and responsibility of their own lives themselves. Existentialism emphasizes that human beings are not born with a predetermined essence or purpose, but instead create the meaning of their own existence through the process of choosing and acting for themselves. Sartre held that this freedom comes bundled with a heavy responsibility, while Camus focused on the attitude of continuing to live even within an absurd situation where life appears to have no clear meaning.
Pragmatism β ideas verified by their results
Developed in the United States around figures such as Charles Peirce, William James, and John Dewey, pragmatism holds that whether an idea or theory is true should be judged by whether it produces useful results in actual life. Pragmatism places more weight on whether an idea is actually helpful in solving real-world problems than on abstract debates over truth. John Dewey applied this perspective to educational philosophy, emphasizing learning through students directly experiencing and solving problems themselves β an approach that has influenced many educational methods used today.
Eastern philosophy, not covered in this article
This article focuses on major schools of Western philosophy; the core ideas of Eastern philosophies such as Confucianism and Taoism arise from a very different background and set of concepts, and can be found in separate articles.