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An Overview of the Byeongja War

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  1. The background of diplomatic tension with Later Jin (Qing)

    After the Imjin War, the Jurchen people, who had grown in strength in Manchuria, established Later Jin under Nurhaci and built up enough power to threaten Ming China. King Gwanghaegun pursued a pragmatic policy of neutrality between Ming and Later Jin, but the Westerner faction, which took power after the Injo Restoration (1623), pushed a pro-Ming, anti-Later Jin policy that provoked Later Jin.

  2. The Jeongmyo War (1627)

    Later Jin, angered by Joseon's pro-Ming, anti-Later Jin policy, invaded Joseon in 1627, launching the Jeongmyo War. Joseon fled to Ganghwa Island to resist, but ultimately made peace on the condition of forming a "brotherly pact" with Later Jin.

  3. The outbreak of the Byeongja War (1636)

    In 1636, Hong Taiji, who had renamed his state Qing, demanded that Joseon accept a ruler-subject relationship; when the Joseon court refused, he led a massive army to invade Joseon. Qing forces swept southward with overwhelming force, advancing to the vicinity of Hanyang within just days of the war's outbreak.

  4. The resistance at Namhansanseong

    When his route to Ganghwa Island was blocked, King Injo retreated to Namhansanseong Fortress and resisted the Qing army for about 45 days. Amid brutal cold and food shortages, a fierce debate continued between the hardline faction, which advocated fighting to the end, and the peace faction, which advocated reconciliation, but Joseon ultimately could not hold out.

  5. The Humiliation at Samjeondo

    In January 1637, King Injo left Namhansanseong and surrendered at Samjeondo (in present-day Songpa, Seoul), performing the "three kneelings and nine prostrations" ceremony before the Qing emperor β€” kneeling three times and bowing his head to the ground three times each. This event, in which a Joseon king personally knelt before a foreign ruler, is recorded as one of the most representative humiliations in Korean history.

  6. Joseon-Qing relations after the war

    After the war, Joseon severed ties with Ming China and formed a ruler-subject relationship in which it served Qing as its suzerain state, and figures such as Crown Prince Sohyeon and Prince Bongnim were taken to Qing as hostages. Afterward, a movement calling for revenge against Qing, known as "Bukbeollon" (Northern Expedition theory), was raised within Joseon, but it was never carried out.

The choice Joseon faced during the Ming-Qing transition

In the early 17th century, the balance of power on the Chinese mainland was shifting rapidly between the declining Ming dynasty and the rising Later Jin (Qing). During this period of upheaval, which diplomatic path Joseon chose was a critical matter directly tied to the survival of the state.

The roots of the pro-Ming, anti-Later Jin policy lay in Joseon's founding philosophy

Behind Joseon's attempt to preserve its loyalty to the declining Ming dynasty rather than the rising Later Jin lay a long diplomatic tradition, dating back to the dynasty's founding, of honoring Ming as the suzerain state of Sinocentric civilization based on Neo-Confucian principles of legitimacy. You can learn about the philosophy on which Joseon was founded in our overview of the founding of Joseon.

Frequently Asked Questions

How is the Jeongmyo War different from the Byeongja War?

The Jeongmyo War (1627) was the first invasion launched by Later Jin, which concluded with the two sides forming a "brotherly relationship"; the Byeongja War (1636) was a second invasion launched after Later Jin renamed itself Qing and forced a ruler-subject relationship on Joseon, ending with King Injo's surrender.

Does the Samjeondo monument still exist today?

Yes. The Samjeondo monument (formally the "Stele of the Qing Emperor's Merit and Virtue"), erected at the demand of the Qing emperor, has been relocated near Seokchon Lake in Songpa-gu, Seoul, believed to be close to its original location, and remains preserved today as a historical relic commemorating the humiliation of the Byeongja War.